GM328A reverse engineering, new firmware and Tetris!

Welcome! In this post I talk about the reverse engineering of the GM328A transistor tester. I have drawn the schematics of the board and compiled new firmware for it. As a bonus, I also programmed Tetris for it.

Intro

Some time ago I wrote an article where I programmed one T3 LCR meter / transistor tester to run a clone of the cute t-rex game from the chrome browser. That LCR meter was one of the most useful instruments I ever had, specially because I have the same digital multimeter since I was 15 and that does not even measure caps. Unfortunately, the former did not endure the constant abuse (I often used it as a badge when going to conferences and such) and the LCD ribbon broke.

I scoped eBay for a replacement, and the T4 successor seemed a bit off and I did not like it at all. Prices for the T3 had gone up also. Thankfully I found something even better, this version was named GM328A.

This LCR meter has a color LCD, which is great in case I continue using these as a made up badge. It also packs frequency and voltage measurement, a power jack, and PWM output. Additionally, the one I found was a mere 10 USD.

That said, these LCR meters make great development boards, in this post I detail the process I used to figure out the schematics for this model and also show a version of Tetris I coded for it. The reverse engineer efforts here are mostly related to the printed circuit board and not to the firmware.

Before we proceed, I have to mention that all these transistor testers are based on the same project, originally created by Markus Frejek and continued by Karl-Heinz.  You can find information and the code at mikrocontroller.net. Still, there are tons of different variations of the circuit sold on eBay and the like, in this post I reverse engineered the schematics for this board only.

So, to sum up. In this project I:

  • Reversed engineered the printed circuit board;
  • Fixed a mistake on the frequency measurement circuit;
  • Adjusted and compiled the AVR transistor tester code to fit this board;
  • Programmed Tetris for it.

Before anything, I thought it was good idea to backup the original firmware, but this is where I hit the first obstacle. Although the board seems hacker-friendly, even having a socket for the microcontroller, its firmware was locked. So instead of copying the firmware to the computer, I replaced the microcontroller. This way I could always have the original firmware and still use the board if I messed up.

GM328A PCB reverse engineering

As expected, the gm328a is also based on the Atmega328 (hence the name, I guess). This is the same microcontroller used in many Arduino boards.

I could have unsoldered everything in order to see the PCB traces clearly, but I did not want to ruin the tester, so I only used the continuity tester function of my multi-meter to figure out where the components were connected.This is a difficult approach, since one component can be connected to many others. Still, the circuit is small enough to not give me a headache.

Good thing that many of the passive components have values printed on the board. I have also used a magnifying glass to see the traces and the markings of the ICs. For some parts, I had to search online for compatible pinouts. The display, for example, I had to find it online (It is the ST7735) to figure out its pinout.

After a lot of testing and online browsing, I came up with the following schematic. You can click the image for full size.

I did the best I could with just the continuity test. It may not be perfect but it it is good enough for its purpose, which is telling where the important bits are connected. you can find these schematics in Eagle format in the project’s repository.

Bonus: Board Fix

While studying the board, I came across something really strange. A via on the board was not connected to anything. By the looks, it seemed that the trace coming from PD4 should be connected to the frequency measurement circuit. Later, I looked at Markus’ firmware and PD4 was indeed the pin used for frequency measurement there. 

I tried to test the frequency measurement function to see if was missing something, but it did not work at all. I concluded that it was in fact a mistake on the PCB layout. I fixed the problem by removing the soldermask from the via and bridging it with solder to the closest resistor.

After that, the frequency measurement worked as it should.

New firmware

Differently from the T3, this board does not have a programming port. Although the MCU is socketed and can be removed, that is a pain to do and I often accidentally bend the pins. I decided to add a temporary programming port for directly connecting the board to one of my trusty USBASP programmers.

Anyways, now with the pinout information from the reverse engineering in hands, I was able to compile a new firmware for the board. Firstly I downloaded the 1.34 version of the Transistor tester code from mikrocontroller.net. You can find all versions of the AVR transistor tester firmware here.

Then I just adjusted the pinouts according to the schematic I showed above, selected the type of LCD and configured the available functions and soon enough I had the transistor tester working with the new code. After some tweaking, I compared the results from the new compiled firmware with the one which came with the board. These results were collected after calibration of the board for both firmware versions.

You can find the edited firmware in the github repository. There you can also view the history of the files config.h, config328.h and Makefile to see what I have changed from the main fork.

New firmware running on the board (2N3904 transistor)

Tetris

Of course I had to program a game for this one (even though I know almost nothing about programming games). If the code seems like a spaghetti feast, you know why.

This gm328a has an encoder with a built in push button. So this is like having three buttons. This setup was really good for arkanoid or maybe pong, but I chose Tetris for two reasons: First, the levels are the same when progressing, the only thing that changes is the speed the blocks fall and the scoring. Second, Rafael said in the past that it was possible to program a working tetris in a single day, so I was really keen to see how long it would take me. Even using Arduino and libraries, It took me some days.

Last time I had a lot of “fun” programming the t-rex game using just bare C. I decided that this time I would use Arduino. BTW,  I translated the whole Arduino reference to Portuguese, so I kind know the functions by heart.

I also used some external libraries, listed below:

Programming the game was still quite the challenge. For starters, the LCD and the rotary encoder are connected to the same pins, so I had to alternate between writing data to the display or checking the encoder. Besides, I had to write data to the LCD very quicky, and watch the encoder the rest of the time. Otherwise the game would miss the turns of the encoder. The fact that the SPI display was being bit-banged did not help too. Because of this, I opted for using very simple squares for representing the tetrominos, not any wasting time filling them too.

To program the gm328a using Arduino, I just select Arduino Pro or Pro mini on the board menu of the IDE. Then I choose Atmega328 (3.3V, 8Mhz). Notice that I chose 3.3V even if the board is 5V. It is ok, as I don’t use the ADC in this project and there is not an 5V, 8Mhz option. This way I don’t have to edit board files outside the IDE or whatever, I find these kinds of workarounds a pain in the neck. To upload the code I use a USBASP with the option Upload Using Programmer (Ctrl + Shift + U).

I did not get the timing right last time. But now I have studied a little, this led me to implement an interrupt driven loop.

#include "game.h"
#include "sound.h"

void setup(void) { 
  gameInit();
}

void loop() {
  gameTick();
  drawBuffer();
  waitInterrupt();
}

The game loop is updated mostly every 60Hz, while the screen is not. Although the display is SPI driven, it is bit-banged with the GPIOs. Also, the MCU runs at 8Mhz, while it could be ran at 20MHz without problems. Thus, updating the screen, which happens only when something has to change on the screen, takes a lot of time compared to computing the game state. The gameTick() function verifies the inputs and calculates the next frame, you can see it below:

void gameTick(void) {
  side = getEncoderPos();
  if (side == S_LEFT)  tet.move(S_LEFT);
  if (side == S_RIGHT) tet.move(S_RIGHT);
  if (buttonWasPressed()) tet.rotate();
  tet.update();
  soundTick();  
}

As the encoder is used for input, spinning it moves the piece sideways, while clicking it rotates the tetromino. An optional push button can be connected between pins 1 and 3 of the testing socket to act as a drop button, the button which accelerates the fall of the blocks.

Unfortunately, I have to disable the encoder when not using it. The encoder shares the LCD display pins and is only active inside the waitInterrupt() function. This function, alongside the interrupt service routine of the timer 1 can be seen below:

void waitInterrupt(void) {
intFlag = 1;
enableEncoder();
while (intFlag) {
encoder.tick();
}
disableEncoder();
} ISR(TIMER1_OVF_vect) { // Timer 1 interrupt service routine (60Hz) TCNT1 = 65015; // preload timer intFlag = 0; }

So, after the game is done calculating everything for the current frame, it waits for the next frame while polling the encoder. It is obvious that when the LCD is being used, some turns of the encoder will be missed, but there is no way of getting around this issue.

Back to the problem of the screen taking too much time to communicate. In order to decrease the update times as much as possible, only the parts of the screen which need to be updated are rewritten to the LCD. For example, let’s see the function that moves a tetromino:

void Tetromino::move(int side) {
    ... 
    //part of the code not relevant to this example has been removed, 
    //see the complete code on the Github repository
    ...
    //paints the old tetromino position black
    buffer[block[0]] = C_BLACK;
    buffer[block[1]] = C_BLACK;
    buffer[block[2]] = C_BLACK;
    buffer[block[3]] = C_BLACK;
    //ad it to the queue to be drawn
    queueInsert(block[0]);
    queueInsert(block[1]);
    queueInsert(block[2]);
    queueInsert(block[3]);

    block[0] += side; block[1] += side; block[2] += side; block[3] += side;

    // fills the new position and add it to the queue to be drawn
    buffer[block[0]] = color;
    buffer[block[1]] = color;
    buffer[block[2]] = color;
    buffer[block[3]] = color;

    queueInsert(block[0]);
    queueInsert(block[1]);
    queueInsert(block[2]);
    queueInsert(block[3]);

  }
}

A tetromino is composed of four blocks, and these blocks can only be placed at 200 possible positions (the tetris “field” is 10×20 blocks). This 200 positions are kept in the variable “Buffer”, which contains the color of each block. Thus, the old position of a block of the moving tetronimo, which is to be erased, and the new position, which is to be colored, are added to an queue. Every frame the drawing function checks this queue for data and only if there are blocks present, these are drawn on the screen:

//draws only the blocks listed on the queue, called every frame
void drawBuffer(void) {
  while (!queueIsEmpty()) {
    int i = queueRemoveData();
    tft.drawRect(X0 + (i % 10)*BLOCK_SIZE, Y0 + (i / 10)*BLOCK_SIZE, BLOCK_SIZE, BLOCK_SIZE, buffer[i]);
  }
  // if game over, shows gameover screen
  if (gameover) {
    showGameOverScreen();
  }
}

The rest of the screen elements are updated asyncronoulsy. Anyways, when these are updated, the game flow is usually blocked, so it is ok. For example, when a line is cleared, the score is updated, all the blocks above that line have to come down and the player has to wait for the next new tetromino to appear.

I could not finish the game without the iconic korobeiniki, so had to implement sound. For this purpose, I use the PWM output terminal. This was very simple, as I already wrote dozens of song sketches for arduino as a sheet music reading exercise. The tone function from Arduino can generate a square wave in the background, using the timer 2. Then I simply check every frame if its is time to change the note being played or rest between notes.

// notes of the moledy followed by the duration.
// a 4 means a quarter note, 8 an eighteenth , 16 sixteenth, so on
// !!negative numbers are used to represent dotted notes,
// so -4 means a dotted quarter note, that is, a quarter plus an eighteenth!!
int melody[] = {
  //Based on the arrangement at https://www.flutetunes.com/tunes.php?id=192
  NOTE_E5, 4,  NOTE_B4, 8,  NOTE_C5, 8,  NOTE_D5, 4,  NOTE_C5, 8,  NOTE_B4, 8,
  NOTE_A4, 4,  NOTE_A4, 8,  NOTE_C5, 8,  NOTE_E5, 4,  NOTE_D5, 8,  NOTE_C5, 8,
  NOTE_B4, -4,  NOTE_C5, 8,  NOTE_D5, 4,  NOTE_E5, 4,
  NOTE_C5, 4,  NOTE_A4, 4,  NOTE_A4, 8,  NOTE_A4, 4,  NOTE_B4, 8,  NOTE_C5, 8,
  ...
};

// sizeof gives the number of bytes, each int value is composed of two bytes (16 bits)
// there are two values per note (pitch and duration), so for each note there are four bytes
int notes = sizeof(melody) / sizeof(melody[0]) / 2;
// this calculates the duration of a whole note in ms (60s/tempo)*4 beats
int wholenote = (60000 * 4) / tempo;
int divider = 0, noteDuration = 0;

unsigned int index = 0;
unsigned long next=0;

void soundTick(void) {
  if (millis() > next) {
    if (index < notes * 2) {
      // stop the waveform generation before the next note.
      noTone(buzzer);

      // calculates the duration of the note
      divider = melody[index + 1];

      if (divider > 0) {
        // regular note, just proceed
        noteDuration = (wholenote) / divider;
      } else if (divider < 0) {
        // dotted notes are represented with negative durations!!
        noteDuration = (wholenote) / abs(divider);
        noteDuration *= 1.5; // increases the duration in half for dotted notes
      }
      next = millis() + noteDuration;

      // we only play the note for 90% of the duration, leaving 10% as a pause
      tone(buzzer, melody[index], noteDuration * 0.9);
      index += 2;
    } else {
      index = 0;
      next = millis();
    }
  }
}

I won’t discuss the whole code, otherwise this post would become even longer. You can see the complete code on Github. Don’t expect it to be good, but is is well commented! Below I leave a short video of he game running:

There are still a few bugs that rarely appear and are annoying to debug. I won’t lose sleep over this though, as this game was just a proof of concept and not the main objective of the project.

That is it for now. Thanks for reading until here.

See you next time o/

Robson Couto

Recetnly graduated electrical engineer. I enjoy devoting my time to learning about computers, electronics, programming and reverse engineering. My projects are documented in this blog when possible.

229 thoughts to “GM328A reverse engineering, new firmware and Tetris!”

  1. I would love to try this, but the G328A i bought wont stay powered on. As soon as you release encoder, itpowers down. Of course china doesnt want to help lol, so i may have to buy another and pray that one works, so i can try this :) Plus have a working tester lol..

  2. I have the new version and I am totally disappointed, it is unpredictable. Resistance is ok but Capacitor way out. When switch on it goes to setup mode the cursor does not move, and immediately it goes into testing mode and keeps on blinking “Vext=0mv” , and after about few minutes it shows some imaginary capacitor with factastic values, then it switches off. I do not know what does it means.

  3. Got mentioned GM328A from Banggood with stock firmware version v1.12k. Frequency meter works, but it is way off (52.8 Hz on screen for 50 Hz input). Seems circuit design for frequency metering here is not good at all. Other things seems working. Square wave signal generator is Ok. Encoder reaction in menu is slow, though it may be software problem. Build quality is, erm… so so. Board wasn’t washed after assembling and had dried liquid flux residues with huge fingerprints all over board. Had to clean them off. Polycarbonate casing top plate near ZIF socket broke in middle during assembling. Maybe I will make different case for it later.

    Any ideas how to fix frequency meter? And how to change firmware – do I need to purchase another Atmega chip or is possible to reflash existing one?

    1. Hi, thanks for your comment.
      The stock firmware in mine was awful was well.
      My board had a problem on the frequency measurement circuit, as explained in the text.

      Yes, you can reflash the existing Atmega, but you will lose the original firmware and I can not guarantee my version is better. You need an AVR programmer though, these go really cheap on ebay. You probably may also use an Arduino if you already have one.

      Robson

  4. Hello
    I have a GM328 TFT LCD Chinese KIT, which uses a red pcb with DIP components.
    https://id.aliexpress.com/item/32645287865.html

    then the HT7550 regulator got burned, so the firmware was broken. I tried to use the hex & eep GM328A file from
    https://www.mikrocontroller.net/svnbrowser/transistortester/Software/trunk/mega328_color_kit/.
    My GM328 test works fine, but the test menu is different from before.
    My GM328 used to have a menu
    – IR RC Detector / Decoder
    – IR RC Transmitter
    – Temperature Sensor DS18B20
    – DHT11

    now the menu does not exist. where I can download hex & eep files that have a test menu like the one above.

    thank you

    1. You probably will have to compile a custom program with the options you want in the config.h file.
      For example, in mine there is:
      //#define HW_IR_RECEIVER
      So the IR receiver is not available. You have to be aware of the MCU pins used however.

  5. Hi there,
    I was wondering if anyone can help me!
    I have a few “LCR-T4 ATmega328 Digital Transistor Tester” with faulty displays ( connector on display board problem).
    Is there any way to find a replacement for the dsiplay board?
    Many thanks,
    Zamfir

    1. I also have a broken LCR meter with the same problem and could not find a replacement LCD. That is why bought the GM328A, not worries of the ribbon breaking as the LCD is tightly secured.

  6. Hi Robson,
    I tried the Tetris: it is very good.
    In Github is ComponentTester.hex (version 1.34) but the file for the EEPROM is missing, could you upload it?
    Thank you

  7. I can record the hex file on the TL866II Plus recorder: and how do I do this, because I tried and ended up losing the original tester firmware :-(

  8. Thank You very much for schematics. Bought one, tested about 20 transistors. After that tester will not switch on anymore. With schematics was able to find broken capacitor and repair tester. It seems electrolytic capacitor on 7550 input pin is 10V or less, because died from unregulated 9V wall adapter, that gives out ~12V when unloaded.

  9. Robson, which compiler used to compile the code and generate the hexadecimal, because I recorded with the tl866II plus, it didn’t work, I recorded as described in the blog, and it even works, but it gives crazy characters on the LCD. What could I have done wrong? thankful

    1. I used avr-gcc and avr-libc on linux with the makefile provided in the original repository.
      I guess that is probably not very easy to do if you use windows. You can always create a virtual machine though.
      Also, is your gm328a the exact same version as this post?

  10. The original version was 1.12, I tried to record 1.34 and others, both on the TL866 and as described in the post, but all of them, the lcs appear strange characters, sometimes it works right and suddenly everything is messed up.

  11. And yes, the circuit is the same as described in the post. As I was unable to update, I ended up buying another one, but I want to see if I can recover this one, but the whole secret is in the ATMEGA 328p fuses

  12. Robson asked a question, what linux did you use for recording with the avr? What if you have a specific fuse to change or which ones to use, and if you can read with the same circuit, or just program?

    1. Hi Francisco, sorry for the late reply.
      I have used Ubuntu linux.
      The fuse bits were programmed by the Makefile, I suppose.
      I will check them out and reply here.
      I could not read the original firmware as it was locked, but I could read the one I compiled used the same programmer I used to write the firmware.

  13. i bought a GM328A russian language version by mistake. Doh! I need english. Is there a way to reflash with english?
    thanks

    1. There is a hex file in my repository. You can try try that one, but no guarantee it will work, some people had trouble. I recommend you flash another atmega328 and swap the microcontrollers. You may also have to program the microcontroller fuse bits, please read the comments above.

      1. where can i study flash atmega328pu online?. i have a malfunctioning Gm328a lcr. I have tried to copy from another Gm328 lcr which still works or straight from the new version of firmware. but it doesn’t work correctly. i am currently using win7. Does the OS have to be linux? Can you help me?
        Thank you for your attention.

  14. Hi, I had to change the display on one of these and its now got an offset, I have found you can change the display offset in the config.h file, but I don’t know how to change and recompile everything. My display has a green tab which denotes how much of an offset? Any chance you can advise?
    I can upload new .hex and .eep firmware to the device, but I havn’t got a clue about how to compile everthing?
    Thanks, Jas

  15. Excellent blog here! Also your website loads up fast! What web host are you using? Can I get your affiliate link to your host? I wish my site loaded up as fast as yours lol

  16. I haven’t checked in here for a while since I thought it was getting boring, but the last few posts are great quality so I guess I will add you back to my daily bloglist. You deserve it my friend :)

  17. I cling on to listening to the news bulletin lecture about receiving free online grant applications so I have been looking around for the top site to get one. Could you tell me please, where could i acquire some?

  18. I do agree with all the concepts you have offered in your post. They are very convincing and can certainly work. Nonetheless, the posts are very quick for beginners. May you please prolong them a bit from next time? Thanks for the post.

  19. Needed to compose you the tiny word to finally thank you very much again for these striking ideas you have shared above. It has been really surprisingly generous with you to offer openly all that many of us might have offered for sale as an electronic book in order to make some bucks for their own end, mostly given that you might well have done it if you wanted. The points also worked to become a easy way to be sure that the rest have a similar zeal just like my personal own to grasp very much more when considering this condition. I am certain there are a lot more pleasurable opportunities in the future for people who looked over your site.

  20. Thanks for the strategies you are revealing on this weblog. Another thing I want to say is that getting hold of copies of your credit file in order to scrutinize accuracy of each detail would be the first step you have to undertake in credit improvement. You are looking to cleanse your credit file from damaging details flaws that spoil your credit score.

  21. Hey! I know this is kinda off topic however , I’d figured I’d ask. Would you be interested in trading links or maybe guest authoring a blog article or vice-versa? My site addresses a lot of the same topics as yours and I feel we could greatly benefit from each other. If you are interested feel free to send me an e-mail. I look forward to hearing from you! Superb blog by the way!

  22. A formidable share, I simply given this onto a colleague who was doing slightly evaluation on this. And he actually bought me breakfast as a result of I discovered it for him.. smile. So let me reword that: Thnx for the deal with! But yeah Thnkx for spending the time to discuss this, I feel strongly about it and love studying more on this topic. If potential, as you change into experience, would you mind updating your blog with extra particulars? It is highly helpful for me. Massive thumb up for this blog put up!

  23. Hello there! I know this is kinda off topic but I’d figured I’d ask. Would you be interested in trading links or maybe guest authoring a blog article or vice-versa? My site covers a lot of the same topics as yours and I feel we could greatly benefit from each other. If you are interested feel free to send me an email. I look forward to hearing from you! Awesome blog by the way!

  24. Прямо здесь можно получить мессенджер-бот “Глаз Бога”, позволяющий собрать сведения о гражданине из открытых источников.
    Сервис работает по номеру телефона, анализируя публичные материалы в сети. Через бота доступны бесплатный поиск и детальный анализ по запросу.
    Инструмент проверен на август 2024 и охватывает аудио-материалы. Глаз Бога сможет узнать данные по госреестрам и предоставит информацию в режиме реального времени.
    бот Глаз Бога
    Это сервис — выбор в анализе людей удаленно.

  25. Здесь вы можете найти боту “Глаз Бога” , который позволяет проанализировать всю информацию о любом человеке из общедоступных баз .
    Уникальный бот осуществляет поиск по номеру телефона и показывает информацию из онлайн-платформ.
    С его помощью можно узнать контакты через Telegram-бот , используя имя и фамилию в качестве ключевого параметра.
    проверка по номеру телефона
    Алгоритм “Глаз Бога” автоматически собирает информацию из множества источников , формируя подробный отчет .
    Подписчики бота получают ограниченное тестирование для тестирования возможностей .
    Платформа постоянно развивается, сохраняя скорость обработки в соответствии с требованиями времени .

  26. Hiya, I am really glad I’ve found this info. Nowadays bloggers publish only about gossips and net and this is really frustrating. A good site with interesting content, that’s what I need. Thank you for keeping this web site, I’ll be visiting it. Do you do newsletters? Cant find it.

  27. Looking for latest 1xBet promo codes? Our platform offers verified promotional offers like 1XRUN200 for registrations in 2025. Claim €1500 + 150 FS as a welcome bonus.
    Use official promo codes during registration to maximize your rewards. Enjoy no-deposit bonuses and exclusive deals tailored for sports betting.
    Find monthly updated codes for 1xBet Kazakhstan with fast withdrawals.
    Every promotional code is checked for accuracy.
    Grab limited-time offers like 1x_12121 to increase winnings.
    Valid for new accounts only.
    https://greatbookmarking.com/story19691038/unlocking-1xbet-promo-codes-for-enhanced-betting-in-multiple-countriesStay ahead with 1xBet’s best promotions – enter codes like 1XRUN200 at checkout.
    Enjoy seamless rewards with easy redemption.

  28. Thanks for the strategies you reveal through your blog. In addition, a lot of young women who become pregnant don’t even attempt to get health insurance because they worry they would not qualify. Although many states today require that insurers give coverage no matter the pre-existing conditions. Fees on all these guaranteed options are usually bigger, but when considering the high cost of medical care bills it may be your safer way to go to protect your financial future.

  29. Здесь вы можете найти боту “Глаз Бога” , который может получить всю информацию о любом человеке из общедоступных баз .
    Данный сервис осуществляет проверку ФИО и раскрывает данные из онлайн-платформ.
    С его помощью можно пробить данные через Telegram-бот , используя имя и фамилию в качестве поискового запроса .
    проверить автомобиль по номеру
    Система “Глаз Бога” автоматически анализирует информацию из открытых баз , формируя структурированные данные .
    Пользователи бота получают пробный доступ для ознакомления с функционалом .
    Решение постоянно развивается, сохраняя актуальность данных в соответствии с стандартами безопасности .

  30. Terrific work! This is the type of info that should be shared around the net. Shame on Google for not positioning this post higher! Come on over and visit my website . Thanks =)

  31. На данном сайте вы можете найти боту “Глаз Бога” , который позволяет проанализировать всю информацию о любом человеке из открытых источников .
    Данный сервис осуществляет поиск по номеру телефона и показывает информацию из государственных реестров .
    С его помощью можно узнать контакты через специализированную платформу, используя автомобильный номер в качестве поискового запроса .
    поиск по номеру телефона
    Технология “Глаз Бога” автоматически анализирует информацию из открытых баз , формируя структурированные данные .
    Пользователи бота получают пробный доступ для проверки эффективности.
    Сервис постоянно совершенствуется , сохраняя актуальность данных в соответствии с законодательством РФ.

  32. Searching for latest 1xBet promo codes? This site offers verified promotional offers like 1x_12121 for new users in 2025. Claim up to 32,500 RUB as a welcome bonus.
    Use trusted promo codes during registration to maximize your rewards. Enjoy risk-free bets and exclusive deals tailored for casino games.
    Discover daily updated codes for global users with guaranteed payouts.
    Every promotional code is checked for accuracy.
    Don’t miss exclusive bonuses like GIFT25 to double your funds.
    Valid for new accounts only.
    https://bookmarkbooth.com/story19681052/unlocking-1xbet-promo-codes-for-enhanced-betting-in-multiple-countriesStay ahead with 1xBet’s best promotions – apply codes like 1XRUN200 at checkout.
    Enjoy seamless rewards with instant activation.

  33. Здесь доступен мощный бот “Глаз Бога” , который получает данные о любом человеке из общедоступных ресурсов .
    Система позволяет пробить данные по номеру телефона , формируя отчет из социальных сетей .
    https://glazboga.net/

  34. This website provides up-to-date information about Audemars Piguet Royal Oak watches, including price ranges and design features.
    Access data on luxury editions like the 41mm Selfwinding in stainless steel or white gold, with prices averaging $39,939 .
    The platform tracks secondary market trends , where limited editions can command premiums .
    Piguet prices
    Technical details such as water resistance are clearly outlined .
    Get insights on 2025 price fluctuations, including the Royal Oak 15510ST’s investment potential.

  35. I’m typically to blogging and i really recognize your content. The article has actually peaks my interest. I am going to bookmark your web site and preserve checking for brand new information.

  36. By my investigation, shopping for consumer electronics online may be easily expensive, nevertheless there are some tricks and tips that you can use to acquire the best products. There are continually ways to discover discount promotions that could make one to ge thet best gadgets products at the smallest prices. Thanks for your blog post.

  37. hey there and thank you for your info – I’ve definitely picked up something new from right here. I did however expertise a few technical issues using this site, since I experienced to reload the site a lot of times previous to I could get it to load properly. I had been wondering if your web host is OK? Not that I’m complaining, but slow loading instances times will very frequently affect your placement in google and could damage your high-quality score if advertising and marketing with Adwords. Well I am adding this RSS to my email and could look out for much more of your respective fascinating content. Make sure you update this again very soon..

  38. This is very interesting, You are an overly professional blogger. I have joined your rss feed and look ahead to looking for more of your great post. Also, I’ve shared your site in my social networks!

  39. Hi there very cool website!! Man .. Beautiful .. Wonderful .. I’ll bookmark your web site and take the feeds additionally厈I am glad to find so many useful info right here within the post, we need develop extra techniques in this regard, thank you for sharing. . . . . .

  40. I know this if off topic but I’m looking into starting my own blog and was wondering what all is needed to get set up? I’m assuming having a blog like yours would cost a pretty penny? I’m not very internet smart so I’m not 100 positive. Any suggestions or advice would be greatly appreciated. Cheers

  41. Лицензирование и сертификация — ключевой аспект ведения бизнеса в России, обеспечивающий защиту от неквалифицированных кадров.
    Обязательная сертификация требуется для подтверждения безопасности товаров.
    Для 49 видов деятельности необходимо специальных разрешений.
    https://ok.ru/group/70000034956977/topic/158905167624369
    Нарушения правил ведут к штрафам до 1 млн рублей.
    Дополнительные лицензии помогает повысить доверие бизнеса.
    Своевременное оформление — залог легальной работы компании.

  42. Ищете ресурсы коллекционеров? Наш сайт предоставляет всё необходимое погружения в тему монет !
    Здесь доступны коллекционные экземпляры из разных эпох , а также драгоценные предметы .
    Изучите каталог с подробными описаниями и высококачественными фото , чтобы найти раритет.
    описание тут
    Если вы начинающий или профессиональный коллекционер , наши статьи и руководства помогут расширить знания .
    Воспользуйтесь возможностью добавить в коллекцию лимитированные артефакты с сертификатами.
    Станьте частью сообщества ценителей и следите аукционов в мире нумизматики.

  43. Thanks for the concepts you have contributed here. On top of that, I believe there are some factors which will keep your car insurance premium lower. One is, to take into consideration buying autos that are from the good report on car insurance providers. Cars that happen to be expensive tend to be at risk of being snatched. Aside from that insurance policies are also in accordance with the value of your truck, so the higher priced it is, then the higher the premium you spend.

  44. Explore the iconic Patek Philippe Nautilus, a luxury timepiece that blends sporty elegance with refined artistry.
    Launched in 1976 , this cult design revolutionized high-end sports watches, featuring signature angular cases and textured sunburst faces.
    For stainless steel variants like the 5990/1A-011 with a 55-hour energy retention to luxurious white gold editions such as the 5811/1G-001 with a blue gradient dial , the Nautilus caters to both discerning collectors and everyday wearers .
    Verified PP Nautilus 5712 timepieces
    Certain diamond-adorned versions elevate the design with dazzling bezels , adding unparalleled luxury to the timeless profile.
    According to recent indices like the 5726/1A-014 at ~$106,000, the Nautilus remains a coveted investment in the world of premium watchmaking.
    For those pursuing a historical model or modern redesign, the Nautilus epitomizes Patek Philippe’s legacy of excellence .

  45. Thanks for the guidelines you have provided here. Yet another thing I would like to convey is that computer memory needs generally rise along with other advances in the know-how. For instance, when new generations of processors are brought to the market, there is usually an equivalent increase in the shape calls for of both computer memory in addition to hard drive space. This is because the software operated by simply these cpus will inevitably surge in power to make new know-how.

  46. Этот сайт публикует свежие новостные материалы со всего мира.
    Здесь доступны новости о политике, бизнесе и разнообразных темах.
    Информация обновляется ежедневно, что позволяет следить за происходящим.
    Простой интерфейс делает использование комфортным.
    https://outstreet.ru
    Каждое сообщение написаны грамотно.
    Целью сайта является честной подачи.
    Оставайтесь с нами, чтобы быть на волне новостей.

  47. Today, I went to the beach front with my children. I found a sea shell and gave it to my 4 year old daughter and said “You can hear the ocean if you put this to your ear.” She put the shell to her ear and screamed. There was a hermit crab inside and it pinched her ear. She never wants to go back! LoL I know this is completely off topic but I had to tell someone!

  48. Wonderful blog! I found it while searching on Yahoo News. Do you have any suggestions on how to get listed in Yahoo News? I’ve been trying for a while but I never seem to get there! Appreciate it

  49. Установка систем видеонаблюдения позволит контроль помещения на постоянной основе.
    Современные технологии гарантируют высокое качество изображения даже в темное время суток.
    Наша компания предоставляет множество решений оборудования, адаптированных для дома.
    videonablyudeniemoskva.ru
    Грамотная настройка и консультации специалистов превращают решение максимально удобным для всех заказчиков.
    Оставьте заявку, для получения оптимальное предложение для установки видеонаблюдения.

  50. This design is steller! You most certainly know how to keep a reader entertained. Between your wit and your videos, I was almost moved to start my own blog (well, almost…HaHa!) Wonderful job. I really enjoyed what you had to say, and more than that, how you presented it. Too cool!

  51. Thanks for your posting. What I want to say is that when searching for a good on the web electronics go shopping, look for a web page with total information on critical indicators such as the privacy statement, safety measures details, any payment options, along with terms along with policies. Always take time to investigate the help in addition to FAQ segments to get a greater idea of the way the shop is effective, what they can perform for you, and how you can maximize the features.

  52. When I originally commented I clicked the “Notify me when new comments are added” checkbox and now each time a comment is added I get four e-mails with the same comment. Is there any way you can remove me from that service? Thanks!

  53. Very nice post. I just stumbled upon your weblog and wanted to say that I have truly enjoyed browsing your blog posts. In any case I抣l be subscribing to your rss feed and I hope you write again very soon!

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *